Management and corporate social responsibility Essay

Corporate social responsibility is a significant issue in the current business environment. There is now a significant shift in businesses to become recognized as being socially responsible whilst achieving the primary business objective of profit maximization. Business now strive particularly to reach the triple bottom line as a key objective as it incorporates; people planet and profit objectives. Corporate social responsibility is often difficult to define, as there are many different definitions and understandings amongst academics and professionals. However corporate social responsibility can broadly be defined as a ‘‘concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis’’ (Falkenberg and Bruns? l 2012). The relationship between socially responsible business actions and profit maximization is generally mixed and controversial. Generally the view is that in order for a business to undertake socially responsible practices there is often increased financial and non-financial costs in order to ensure this and thus leading to decreased profits in the short term. However it is also evident that socially responsible business actions and strong relationships with business stakeholders may lead to significant long-term profit maximization. Corporate social responsibility is now an essential factor within business management. A firm’s corporate social responsibility must be evident throughout all its business functions, in which the ethics and values of the business must align to meet all stakeholder expectations. Including social, environmental and ethical factors of business. In the article â€Å"Is harm reduction profitable? An analytical framework for corporate social responsibility based on an epidemic model of addictive consumption† (Massin 2012) the corporate social responsibility of firms in the industry of addictive substances, most noteworthy, gambling, cigarettes, and alcohol. There is a significant paradox in relation to producers within these industries and their socially responsible claims. â€Å"These firms claim to be socially responsible while marketing a product clearly identified and harmful† (Massin 2012). The paper generally focuses on the substances of alcohol, cigarettes and gambling, as it is these products â€Å"whose consumption shares the dual characteristic of being at risk of leading the users to gradually lose control over their consumption and of generating health and social damage. † (Massin 2012) thus highlighting the contradiction of the producer’s claims of being socially responsible whilst selling these highly addictive products. Within the industries of addictive goods firms cannot be completely socially responsible, as this would involve the removal of these products from the market. Thus highlighting the inability for producers of addictive products to achieve corporate social responsibility. Therefore illustrating the inability of firms in these industries to be socially responsible whilst still achieving the primary business goal of profit maximization. Corporate social responsibility involves business firms aligning their values with those of their stakeholders. There are many significant stakeholders of business, including shareholders, managers, employees and society. Another significant business stakeholder is that of the environment. A socially responsible business is viewed to have open and accountable business actions based on respect for the community, society and the broader environment, and not just legal regulations. This therefore means a socially responsible business ensures it takes into account environmental stability and sustainability. In the article â€Å"Environmental corporate social responsibility and financial performance disentangling direct and indirect effects† (Loiui, Sharma 2012) the link between environmental social responsibility and financial performance has been established. The increasing environmental awareness has lead to increased firm research and development and hence has established new technologies and production processes (Loiui, Sharma 2012). This increases research and development and implementation of new technologies and production processes generally leads to significant short-term business costs in the implementation and change within the business. However, the implementation of socially responsible business behavior leading to environmental sustainability creates significant long-term profit opportunities through increased waste reduction, lower business consumption and also increase brand image in the eyes of consumers. This linkage between socially responsible business actions, involving environmentally friendly processes and the ability to maximize profit highlights the ability for firms to uphold socially responsible business actions whilst also being able to achieve financial objectives and profit maximization. Corporate social responsibility is viewed as an essential business function in today’s business environment. However, corporate social responsibility is widely viewed as a violation of a businesses financial performance and the opportunity for business profit maximization. Corporate social responsibility is seen to have many disadvantages that hinder and impede the fundamental business goal of profitability. This concept is further explored in the paper â€Å"the casual effect of corporate governance on corporate social responsibility† (Maretno and Harjoto 2012). In which it is highlighted that there are three alternatives to the relationship between corporate social responsibility and a firm’s corporate financial performance. These three theories identify the variable relationships between socially responsible business actions and financial performance. One of the alternatives illustrates the constraint corporate social responsibility imposes on the primary business goals of profitability. It is stated that socially responsible business actions are viewed as â€Å"costly activities and a waste of scarce resources, and therefore have an adverse impact on firm value† (Maretno and Harjoto 2012). Corporate social responsibility is often viewed as a costly procedure for businesses to undertake. However, this cost of corporate social responsibility is not only financial but also involves costs associated with time, resources and labour, furthermore contributing to the overall financial inefficiency and disadvantages associated with corporate social responsibility. The impeding financial and non financial costs of the implementation of corporate social responsibility create significant hindrances to a businesses’ ability to maximize profits and thus, highlights the difficulty in relation to being socially responsible whilst also satisfying the primary business goal of profit maximization. Although corporate social responsibility is seen to violate profits, it is also believed that firms that conduct socially responsible business actions may reap financial gain and profit maximization. A company’s business action in relation to corporate social responsibility generally has significant influence on the attitudes of non-investing stakeholders and the general society. In the article â€Å"the casual effect of corporate governance on corporate social responsibility† (Maretno and Harjoto 2012) Maretno and Harjoto explain CSR as a â€Å"conflict resolution hypothesis†, in which corporate social responsibility is used as a conflict resolution tool between the firm and they’re non-investing stakeholders (Maretno and Harjoto 2012). Soana’s paper â€Å"the relationship between corporate social performance and corporate financial performance in the banking sector† (Soana 2011) further more identifies the positive link between both corporate social responsibility and financial performance and profitability. Corporate social responsibility is seen to give firms â€Å"competitive advantage† and may also be seen as a â€Å"safeguard of corporate reputation†(Soana 2011). The use of corporate social responsibility as a conflict resolution tool and a safeguard for unpredictability creates significant opportunity for strong financial performance within the firm, due to its creation of several strategic advantages for business, such as the enhanced and harmonious business environments as well as enhanced public image and greater brand value. These factors greatly contribute to the financial performance of the firm and thus if corporate social responsibility is achieved there are significant opportunities for profit maximization. Therefore illustrating the ability of firms to uphold socially responsible actions and corporate social responsibility, whilst still retaining the ability to achieve the primary business goal of profit maximization. Corporate social responsibility has a paramount influence on businesses in the current business environment. Corporate social responsibility consists of open and accountable business actions in order to align the firm’s values with those of their stakeholders. Businesses are now becoming more concerned with the demands of corporate social responsibility, whilst still trying to achieve the fundamental business goal of profit maximization. There is many challenges associated whilst trying to achieve the business objectives of corporate social responsibility and profit maximization simultaneously. Corporate social responsibility generally is associated with increased business costs, including those of time, misuse of resources and monetary costs. However, it has also become evident that socially responsible business actions may lead to long-term financial gains for business as well as greater stakeholder reputation, brand perception and efficiency, ultimately leading to the maximization of business profits. References Falkenberg, J. and Brunsael, P. (2012) corporate social responsibility: a strategic advantage or a strategic necessity?. Journal of business ethics, 99 p. 9-16. [Accessed: 24th April 2013]. Lioui, A. and Sharma, Z. (2012) Environmental corporate social responsibility and financial performance: Disentangling direct and indirect effects. Ecological economics, 78 p. 100-111. [Accessed: 24th April 2013]. Maretno, H. and Harjoto, A. (2012) The casual effect of corporate governance con corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business ethics, 106 p. 53-72. [Accessed: 20th April 2013]. Massin, S. (2012) Is harm reduction profitable? an analytical framework for corporate social responsibility based on an epidemic model of addictive consumption. Social Science and medicine, 74 p. 1856-1863. [Accessed: 24th april 2013]. Soana, M. (2011) The relationship between corporate social performance and corporate financial performance in the banking sector. Journal of business ethics, 104 p. 133-148. [Accessed: 24th April 2013].

Information Management and Organization Behavior - 987 Words

DEFINITION OF STRESS An emotional disorder, stress is the thought process and the physical condition of a person. The reaction against anything that causes a person to feel fear, fidget or threatened. It occurs when a person receives something out of habit or ability. When the stress, the body will produce the hormone adrenaline and heart beats cortisone causes tempest, increased respiratory more speed, and increased blood pressure. Well-designed, organized and managed work is good for us but when insufficient attention to job design, work organization and management has taken place, it can result in Work related stress. Work related stress develops because a person is unable to cope with the demands being placed on them. Stress, including work related stress, can be a significant cause of illness and is known to be linked with high levels of sickness absence, staff turnover and other issues such as more errors. Stress can hit anyone at any level of the business and recent research shows that work relate d stress is widespread and is not confined to particular sectors, jobs or industries. That is why a population-wide approach is necessary to tackle it. Work stress is stress arising from or affecting employment. Negative pressure, both in terms of mental, physical or emotional, is an important factor that can threaten the harmony of quality of life does one employee. This area has been studied by researchers for over 100 years ago. According to one study, almost 35 percent ofShow MoreRelatedInformation Management and Organization Behavior1712 Words   |  7 Pagesinteresting in leadership is the existence of leaders who are in the organization which has its own structure by creating a relationship between leaders and followers to achieve excellence. 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Commentary on William Shakespeare´s As s You Like It and...

Shakespeare’s society was strongly patriarchal .Women were expected to behave passively obediently and submissively toward their husbands ,who were considered the superior sex and were given the responsibility of governing the household .This is a topic undoubtedly critical to our understanding both of the role of women and the traditional concepts of gender and sexuality.Tarub explains that even domestic households were structured in accordance with patriarchal values ; the man ruled whilst his wife managed it .Traub sums up the repression and confinements of women within the domestic households as ‘’the body enclosed’’ to refer to their ‘closed genitals ,closed mouths and closure within the home ‘’ .Weakness and ‘the body enclosed’’ may have been synonymous with women at the time , but certainly not with the heroic and overbearing Rosalind who shows a reckless disregard for social conventions in donning on th e disguise of Ganymede ,mocking the principles of love and bringing Orlando under her sway .She is ‘’a woman .When {she} thinks , {she} must speak ‘’ .To arrive at a tentative argument as to whether Rosalind acts as an ‘agent of change ‘ (Todd 1 ) and a challenge to the ‘body enclosed’ or a reflection of traditional gender roles , we must first of all define ‘heroine’ and look at how the its sense has changed over time , and how it may be applied to her as a ; cousin : daughter : man and boy . 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In commercial terms, music certainly generates a higher market value than the other arts, although a comprehensive market size for music in all its manifestations is impossible to calculate. Key Note has put a value

Not Celebrating Christopher Columbus Essay - 1370 Words

Christopher Columbus should not be considered a hero because he took advantage of the generosity of the natives to achieve his greedy ambition. Even though he is celebrated in the United States, Christopher Columbus should not be considered a hero. He took advantage of the generosity of the American natives he found. His greedy ambition had horrible results that most Americans do not even realize. Christopher Columbus was born in about 1451 in the Italian city of Genoa. He was the son of a wool merchant, and spent most of his childhood working as a part-time weaver. (Zinn) During his teenage years, Columbus got job on a merchant ship and stayed mostly at sea until 1470, when French privateers attacked his boat. Unfortunately the†¦show more content†¦(Rouse) The Taino natives had been living off the islands for over 1,500 years and developed a set of strong values, consisting of generosity, kindness, and gentle personalities. Their culture was so intricate and multifaceted, and the Taino fed millions of people. In addition to feeding everyone, the Taino also maintained a spirituality that encompassed the respect of their animal and other natural food sources. (Barreiro) The Tanios all lived together in little villages and had a developed agriculture of corn, yams, and cassava. They could spin and weave, but they had no horses or other work animals. They had no iron, b ut they wore tiny gold ornaments in their ears. The word Taino in the Arawak language meant men of the good, and based on what the historians have seen these Taino people seem to be inherently good. (Barreiro) Well known for their remarkable hospitality, their belief in sharing, the native people were open, friendly, and welcoming to Columbus and his crew from the moment they stepped foot on the Taino’s island. To the Taino people, Christopher Columbus and his crew were complete strangers who arrived carrying swords and speaking an unfamiliar language. Yet the Taino men, women, and children quickly emerged from their villages and ran onto the islands beaches to welcome these unwanted guests with food, water, and gifts. (Zinn)Show MoreRelatedChristopher Columbus : The Greatest Failure995 Words   |  4 Pagesperfect. Every great man has had or has enemies. Christopher Columbus was this man. It is Christopher Columbus that sailed around the world and accidently discovered the â€Å"New World† in 1492 according to an article by frontpagemag.com. This was no ordinary man, Christopher was brave and willing to take risks. Keep in mind Christopher Columbus was living in a world where â€Å"a lot of ordinary people thought the world was flat (Almasy, CNN). 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Merchant of Venice (Anti- Semitism) Free Essays

Questioning Humanity The Merchant Of Venice In the Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare, Shylock is portrayed as a manipulative, greedy, and money hungry man who, throughout the book, is consumed with the deterioration of his enemies. Because of the prevailing anti- Semitic sentiment in Shakespeare’s time, you would naturally assume that the Merchant of Venice is an anti- Semitic play. However, as you continue to examine the text, Shakespeare portrays Shylock in a much more human way than was generally done in those days and he shows that Shylock is, in fact, a part of humanity. We will write a custom essay sample on Merchant of Venice (Anti- Semitism) or any similar topic only for you Order Now Shakespeare challenges anti-Semitism by showing that Jews are just like Christians. He does this by proving how the imperfections that people have are what make us human. Even today, Shakespeare shows the world how hypocritical people can be, no matter their religion, race, or personal beliefs. Shakespeare uses irony in this play to illustrate that the bad things that Shylock (the Jew) has done are no worse than what Antonio (the Christian) has done in his lifetime. Therefore, this creates the effect of humanizing the characters and demonstrates that regardless of religion or race, people have both good and bad sides. Although Shylock’s Jewishness is made apparent from the very moment he is introduced, and thus seems to reinforce Shakespeare’s work as being anti-Semitic, it is in fact Shylock’s wit and humanity that reveal how Shakespeare challenges such bias. Before Shylock even enters the play, the scene introduction mentions that he is a Jew ­Ã‚ ­ and immediately sets your mind against him, especially in Elizabethan England when Jews were alienated. Shylock quoted, â€Å"[Antonio] hath disgraced me [Shylock] and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies—and what’s his reason? I [Shylock] am a Jew. (3:1:52). † While Jews were scorned because of their religious beliefs, Shakespeare made it clear that each religious group hated each other. For example, Shylock says, â€Å"I hate him for he is a Christian (1:3:40). † Therefore, although Shylock is made the â€Å"bad guy† in this play, he isn’t the only one guilty of religious discrimination. Shakespeare makes it clear that both Antonio and Shylock have no religious tolerance for each other and are prejudicial toward each other’s religion. Although William Shakespeare leads you to believe that Shylock is prejudiced toward Christians, the reason for his hatred becomes clear when you learn that he is a man who is abused by the Christians surrounding him. Shylock has a reason for his hatred, â€Å"You call me misbeliever, cut-throat dog, And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine. 1:3:121)† Shylock defends his hatred when he says, â€Å" Hath not a Jew Eyes? Hath not a Jew Hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the r est, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge! (3:1: 52)† Therefore, it is Shylock’s human nature that leads him to despise Christians, not because of their religious beliefs directly, but because of their hatred of him simply because of his religious beliefs. Shylock defends his humanity by showing the Christians that they are no different from the Jews they treat with such disrespect. Shylock has a desire for revenge, which further humanizes him and connects him with Antonio. Because of Shakespeare’s choice of words, he leads you to believe that he is an anti-Semitic. However, a closer look at how Shakespeare shapes the play illustrates a deeper theme—that people are people, no matter their religion, race, or beliefs. Shylock doesn’t preform his actions because he is a Jew, he is simply mean because of the way the other characters treat him. Shylock says, â€Å"I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond. Thou call’dst me dog before thou hadst a cause, But since I am a dog, beware my fangs. † Shylock’s actions are justified because of the way the other characters treat him. . Christian revenge is typical; therefore, Jewish revenge can’t be faulted. While Shylock is mean because of the cruel treatment he has received throughout his life, Antonio has no excuse. Shylock makes you realize that while Shakespeare may give the appearance that he is an anti-Semitist, he really believes that all people are equal and hatred is universal. At the end of the day, Shakespeare proves that it is Shylock’s humanity that makes him just like everyone else. He shows that the conflicts in The Merchant of Venice may start out because of religious differences; however, the actual message is more how the desire for revenge is something all people have in common, despite any other differences in their lives. Shylock challenges the stereotypes given to him in the beginning of the book and creates a complex character whose behavior is justified because of the way the other characters treat him. The Merchant of Venice demonstrates that no writers have to be bound by the prejudices of their time. While Shakespeare probably never met a Jew in his lifetime, he showed that religion doesn’t define who a person is. Some people may argue that because Shakespeare gives Shylock the stereotypical Jewish characteristics, he is obviously anti-Semitic. However, Shakespeare proves through Shylock that his intention wasn’t to emphasize anti- Semitism, but to show that all people have both good and bad sides to them. How to cite Merchant of Venice (Anti- Semitism), Papers

Processes of Standardization Influenced

Question: Discuss about the Processes of Standardization Influenced. Answer: Introduction: In general, the standardization of English can be conceptualized as a process through which the language came to achieve a unified form of writing, spelling and speaking in the world. As a matter of fact, the process of standardization spans over a long period of time. In other words, in the history of English language, there is no specific event that can be attributed to the standardization of the language (Bauer, 2014). The standardization has taken place throughout many centuries and in the Germanic language which has continually spread throughout the world. Nonetheless, the changing of Middle English to Early Modern English appears like the final stages of English language standardization. Bauer (2014) argues that some numerous factors including social, intellectual and contributions from different scholars played significant roles in the development of English language. In this sense, the paper discusses how the processes of standardization influenced the form and attitude towar ds Englishes. In respect to this view, the essay will approach the question regarding discussing the inception of standardization and choosing of a standard variety, functions of the language, codification, and attitudes towardsEnglish and Englishes in different parts of the world today. Standardization and Choosing of a Standard Variety There are four known periods through which the English language underwent (Bauer, 2014: Bolton, 2004). The first period, Old English period, occurred between 400AD and 1100AD. Middle English followed between 1100 AD and 1500 AD whereas the thirds stage, Early Modern English dates between 1500AD and 1800AD. The final period that marks the formation of the modern English begun in 1800. Essentially, England, by the end of the Middle English had five distinct dialects. The Northumbrian Old English dialect later developed into the Northern and Scots English. Similarly, the West Midlands and the East Midlands dialects resulted from the Mercian dialect of the old English. According to Bolton (2004), the old English was an inflectional language that chiefly used symbols. Bolton also maintains that the symbols and the structure of the ancient English did not resemble the modern English. The standardization of English language involves a number of stages. The first one is the selection stage. Selection is necessary because the English language has numerous dialects. For instance, there are situational varieties, class dialects and regional dialects. It involves the selection of an already existing dialect. Therefore, the dialect chosen for English standardization was the Middle English which was a dialect of the East Midlands. Second, is the acceptance stage. This stage involves the acceptance of the selected variety by the community. Acceptance is enhanced by ensuring promotion, spread, establishment, and enforcement of the language norms. The third stage is known as the elaboration stage. In this stage, the selected dialect is elaborated and expanded further to serve the needs for its selection. Elaboration and expansion entail the enrichment of the language by elaborating the grammatical structures and addition of vocabulary (Lass, 1999). Thus, the east midland English was elaborated through borrowing or importation of lexemes from Latin and French. Additionally, there was also the elaboration of the structure through the incorporation of the Latin structure. The fourth stage is known as the codification stage. The stage, thus, involves making of both vocabulary and grammar explicit. The (vocabulary and grammar) are written down as well. Once the language is codified through writing, it is acknowledged by vast population and is use spreads widely (Lass, 1999). Lass (1999) notes other changes can be done through regulation upon the codification of English. A particular community can initiate the changes. The final stage is known as the implementation stage. Here, the chosen English variety is implemented within a community. For instance, English is made the medium of instruction in learning institutions and the adoption of the language by other institutions such as media, law, and government. These are the defining factors that enhanced the spread of English to a global level (Northrup, 2013) Soon after the selection and elaboration of the Standard English, the language was then codified in dictionaries and grammar (Lass, 1999). Primarily, the social institutions such as media, printing, and law adopted the use of the Standard English. Therefore, the first grammars and dictionaries of English language were purposely written so as to identify and spread the new form of English. As a result, there rose the perception that the new form of English, which was also considered as the best English was the language of the best people (Crystal, 1997). According to Crystal (1997), anything outside the best English was morally, linguistically and socially lesser. In other words, all other varieties of English are considered as dialects. They are implicitly stigmatized as less significant and usually associated with the speakers who belong to a lower social class (citation). As a result of standardizing English, other dialects including the western, northern and southern dialects were highly ignored hence they were classified as second class languages. Nonetheless, the dialects were not fossilized since they were still used by the persons in those areas. A period towards the end of the Early Modern English was marked by an attempt to set up an academy in England as it was in Italy and France (Crystal, 1997). Nevertheless, the idea was not implemented since there was a general view that French did not stick to the language despite having an academy. The resistance, however, did not hinder the codification of English by means of grammar and dictionaries. Attitude towards English and Englishes in Different Parts of the World Today The attitude towards English and Englishes has dramatic effects in most parts of the world today (Bragg, 2003). Notably, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of people who use English across the world today. Consequently, more countries are continuously making changes in their language policies so as to incorporate English language (Schneider, 2014). Previously, English was held as a language of the English speaking countries. Nonetheless, today, the language is increasingly used not only by these countries but also by the non-native speakers (Crystal, 1997). In this view, therefore, English is used as a foreign or a second language. Galloway and Rose (2015) contend that there have been different attitudes towards English and Englishes across the world. For instance, the attitude towards the use of English in India varies across different people. There are some varying reactions towards the use of English in India and more particularly, based on the colonial grounds (Bragg, 2003). Nonetheless, the use of English in this content has received paramount support. For instance, while Gadhi termed English as an alien language and a form of slavery (Crystal, 1997), President Nehru felt the need to continue using English since it would enhance some developments in science and technology as well boost Indias industrialization. Nevertheless, it is evident that the attitude towards English is becoming more favorable across India (Jenkins, 2014). According to Jenkins (2014), its use has penetrated fields such as the mass media, administration, commerce, judiciary, science, and technology. He also connotes that its use has not affected aspects such as religion, social functions, cultural customs and festivals as well as interpersonal relationships. Additionally, there is a varying view about the Indian English. Jenkins (2003) again says t hat the Indian English is seen as a nativised or Indianized form of English. The Indian variety, therefore, has its distinct rules of grammar, vocabulary, syntax and phonology (Jenkins, 2003). Different scholars express different attitudes towards the world's Englishes. Among the contributors are Quirk and Kachru. The former's attitude towards Englishes was mainly based on their use in the outer-circle countries. According to Quirk, the use of Englishes in the outer circle countries was rather some form of interference (Quirk, 1990). In this case, therefore, he advised the teachers of English to maintain a focal point on the native norms and the native performance. He also stressed on the need to not only use English within the inner circle countries but also in others. Thus, Quirk (1990) saw the need to uphold a common standard that would be used in writing and speaking. The adoption of a common standard would thus help in the regulation of the use of English in diverse contexts. His opinion was driven by the perception of the possibility that English would be divided into different forms hence resulting in the loss of the function of international communication. Kachru, on the other hand, was opposed to Quirks view. He held that the norms, when used as speech acts and registers were not relevant to the sociolinguistics especially to the people of the outer circle (Kachru, 1985). In addition, Kachru (1977) also postulated that the acknowledgment of a variety of norms would not result in lack of intelligibility of the different users of English. Essentially, he pointed out that majority of the bilingual users of English acquire English in learning contexts. He maintains that these contexts do put substantial emphasis on certain standard thus ensuring that there are some unifying forms. The attitude towards English and Englishes has raised questions towards teaching as well as the teacher education (Bolton, 2004). For instance, there is the question about the form of English that is appropriate for teaching in the expanding circle. For example, a Turkish student in the United States would be taught the American English. Alternatively, the stude nt ought to be taught the Standard English if she/he wishes to communicate across other cultures (Hsu, 2016). In conclusion, the paper has outlined the process of the standardization of English. It is through the process of standardization that there arose the Standard English. Essentially, the rise and the spread of the Standard English did not result to the fossilization of other Englishes. In this case, therefore, there has been varying attitudes towards both English and Englishes. Thus, it is arguable that the process of standardization has had great influence on both the attitude and form towards Englishes. References Bauer, L. (2014). Watching English change: An introduction to the study of linguistic change in standard Englishes in the 20th century. Routledge. Bolton, K. (2004). World Englishes. In A. Davies C. Elder (Eds.) The handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 367-396). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Bragg, M. (2003), The Adventure of English, London, Hodder and Stoughton Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Galloway, N., Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge. Graddol, D. (2006). English Next. British Council. https://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf Hsu, T. H. L. (2016). Removing bias towards World Englishes: The development of a Rater Attitude Instrument using Indian English as a stimulus. Language Testing, 33(3), 367-389. Jenkins, J. (2014). Global Englishes: A resource book for students. Routledge. Jenkins, J. (2003), World Englishes, London: Routledge. Kachru, B. B. (1985), "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism", in: Quirk, Randolph (ed.), English in the World, 11-34, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kachru, B. B. (1997). World Englishes and English-using communities. Annual review of applied linguistics, 17, 66-87. Lass, R. (1999), The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol.III, Cambridge, Cambridge University press. Northrup, D. (2013). How English became the global language. Springer. Quirk, R. (1990). Languge varieties and standard language. English Today, 21, 3-10. Schneider, E. W. (2014). New reflections on the evolutionary dynamics of world Englishes. World Englishes, 33(1), 9-32.

Linear Programming Essays - Mathematical Optimization,

Linear Programming Linear programming is a nonstatistical mathematical technique whereby the maximization or minimization of a linear expresion of variables, call the objective function, is determined in the presence of known or assumed restrictions, call constraint. In essence, it's a procedure for solving the problems in which there are more variables than simultaneous equations in which the variables are expressed. No probability or statistics are needed to study linear programming. The mathematics involved in linear programming is relatively easy to understand and to manipulate in contrast to calculus. Linear equations and inequations form the mathematical skeleton around which linear programming is built. A linear function called the object function is to be maximized or minimized in some sense, like optimzed. Most real world problems have many possible solutions. The purpose of optimization is to choose from among many possible solutions the "best" possible solutions. Some example of "best" are highest profit, lowest cost, largest sales, lowest production time, etc. The optimization of the objective functions take place in teh presence of known or assumed restriction. The technical term constraints is used to describe the restrictions present in linear programming problem. The constraints are expressed mathemically as inequalities. In a practical real-world situation, the constraints are generated by the presence of limited resources or commodities such as capital manpower and raw material. Mathematically, inequations can be converted to equations by the introduction of slack variables. Linear programming can be dated from the year 1947 when G.B. Dantzing evolved an efficent technique call the Simplex Method, for solving linear programming problems. The following decades, the rapid development of both the theory and applications of linear programming which were aided by the simultaneous introduction of the electronic computers. One of the first probelm to be solved by the simplex method was Stigler's diet problem (1945). Here is the diet problem Protein Fat Carbohydrate Cost 100g bread 40 5 205 2.2p 100g cheese 60 380 60 12p Minimal daily requirement 300 790 1350 The problem is determine how much bread and cheese Mrs. Jones should buy each day in order to minimize the cost of the diet, whilst fulfilling the calorie requirements. Suppose shy buys x' * 100g of cheese and x'' * 100g of cheese, then the mathematical problem, known as a linear programme is as follows. Minimize z=2.2x' + 12x'' (Cost Of Diet) Subject To 40x' + 60x'' > or = 300 (At least 300 cal of protein) 5x' + 380x'' > or = 790 (At least 790 cal of fat) 205x' + 60x'' > or = 1350 (At least 1350 cal of carbo.) x' > or = 0, x2 > = 0 (quantites must be non-negative) The easiest and most illustrative method of solving problems in two unknowns is the graphical method. The value of x' and x'' satisfying 40x' + 60x'' > or = 300 lies in the upper half-plane bounded by the straight line 40x' + 60x'' = 300, so the x' and x'' satistying all the above inequalities lie in the intersection of their respective half - plane. Interger Solutions Provided the supplies and demands are positive intergers, the matrix minimum method always leads to and optimal solution with integer values as the method only involves operations on integers which results in integers. Obviously a non-integer optimal solution would be useless. Uniqueness It can happen that two or more differnet allocations of ships between ports give rise to thesame minimum cost. However, if v'=u'